135. Ginkgo adiantoides.
Unmatching leaves from the same tree, an ancient maidenhair from the Paleocene of South Dakota. Private collection.

136. Icaronycteris index.
Skeleton of the earliest known bat, a tiny placental mammal, an agile, flying insectivore and closest relative of the primates. Early Eocene, Wyoming. Yale Peabody Museum.

137. Rhynchaeytes messelensis.
Skeleton of a fossil snipe, an early shorebird showing advanced characteristics of modern birds. Eocene, Germany. Private collection.

138. Asteropecten matilijaensis.
Tiny starfish, a descendant of the early crinoids, from the Middle Eocene of California. Private collection.

139. Lepisosteus strausi.
A perfectly preserved garpike fish in lakebottom mud shale, from the Eocene of Germany. private collection.

140. Phareodus testis.
A splendid example of this advanced bony fish, from the Eocene Green River Formation, Wyoming. Private collection.

141. Gosnitichthys paruns.
A spectacular school of herrings that perished together, among the most common of Eocene freshwater fishes. From the Middle Eocene Green River Formation of Fossil, Wyoming. Private collection.

142. Knightia humilis.
Exquisitely preserved herring from the Eocene Green River Formation of Wyoming. Private collection.

143. Propalaeotherium messelensis.
Skeleton of the diminutive early ancestor of the horse, an almost mature juvenile with 4-toed front and 3-toed hind feet (each with a small hoof). Middle Eocene, Germany. Humboldt Museum.

144. Merycoidodon culbertsoni.
Skeleton of the primitive oreodont, ancestor of such cloven-hooved ruminants (cud-chewers) as camels and swine. Late Eocene, South Dakota. Private collection.

194. Archaeotherium.
Skull of the ferociously tusked entelodont, an early omnivorous boar the size of a cow. Oligocene, South Dakota. Private collection.

145. Hoplophoneus mentalis.
Skull of the small stabbing cat, known as a “false saber-tooth”, ancestral to the giant saber-tooths of the Ice Age, from the Oligocene of South Dakota.

147. Adapis parisiensis.
Skull of the early long-tailed primate, an arboreal lemur-like climber ancestral to the higher primates. Middle to Late Eocene, France. Yale Peabody Museum.

148. Rooneyia viejaensis.
Skull and brain of the early nocturnal primate exhibiting traits characteristic of the later apes, from the Oligocene of Texas. University of Texas.

149. Aegyptopithecus zeuxis.
Skull of the primitive, short-tailed primate, the earliest known ape and oldest direct ancestor of the great apes. Middle Oligocene, Egypt. Cairo Geological Museum.

150. Proconsul africanus.
Skull of the advanced tailless primate of the forest fringes, a quadrupedal ape, ancestral to the great apes and hominids. Miocene, Kenya. Kenya National Museum.

154. Sivapithecus indicus.
Skull of the later Asian ramapithecine ape, ancestor of the orangutan, formerly known as “Ramapithecus” and erroneously believed to be an early hominid, from the Miocene of Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan.

156. Hominid Footprints.
Left in volcanic ash 3.75 million years ago by a pair of erect-walking hominids (a third hominid possibly walking inside the footprints of the larger individual), known as “The Laetoli Footprints.” Late Pliocene, Tanzania. Kenya National Museum.

157. Australopithecus afarensis.
The famous “Lucy,” the oldest and most complete fossil skeleton of an erect-walking human ancestor, an early gracile hominid, ancestral to the later australopiths and Homo. 3 million years old. Middle Pliocene, Ethiopia. National Museum of Ethiopia.

195. Australopithecus afarensis.
Reconstruction of the skull of “Lucy”. Middle Pliocene, Ethiopia.

158. Australopithecus afarensis.
Composite male skull and hand, assembled from the remains of 13 individuals found buried together and known as the “First Family.” Middle Pliocene, Hadar, Ethiopia. National Museum of Ethiopia and Institute of Human Origins.

159. Australopithecus africanus.
Skull (female) of the early gracile hominid known as "Mrs. Ples", possibly ancestral to the gracile Homo. 2 million years old. Late Pliocene, South Africa. Transvaal Museum.

160. Australopithecus africanus transvaalensis.
Fossilized skull and brain of a young gracile hominid known as the “Taung Child.” 2 million years old. Late Pliocene, South Africa. Transvaal Museum.

161. Australopithecus aethiopicus.
Skull (male) of the earliest of the robust hominids, known as “The Black Skull”, exhibiting features common to afarensis and robustus but not on the hereditary path to Homo. 2.6 million years old. Late Pliocene, Kenya. Kenya National Museum.

162. Australopithecus robustus.
Skull (female) of the early and primitive robust hominid with no knowledge of stone tools, a vegetarian gatherer of fruits, seeds, and roots. 1.6 to 1.9 million years old. Late Pliocene, South Africa. Transvaal Museum.

163. Australopithecus boisei.
Skull (male) and unassociated jaw of the super-robust hominid known as "Zinjanthropus," the last and largest of the australopiths, possibly killed off by early Homo, found in the Olduvai Gorge. 1.8 million years old. Late Pliocene, Tanzania. National Museum of Tanzania.

164. Homo habilis.
The famous “1470" skull (male), advanced gracile hominid and earliest known producer of primitive stone tools, ancestor of Homo erectus. 1.9 million years old. Late Pliocene, Kenya. Kenya National Museum.

165. Homo habilis.
Male and female skulls of the advanced hominid, evidencing significant sexual dimorphism ( difference in size between the genders ). Late Pliocene, Kenya. Kenya National Museum.

166. Mammuthus primigenius.
Tooth of the woolly mammoth recovered by fishermen from the North Sea. Middle Pleistocene, Europe. Private collection.

167. Homo erectus.
Skull (male) and unassociated jaw of the advanced tent-dwelling hominid, the first to leave Africa and populate Europe and Asia, ancestor of Homo sapiens. An early individual, 1.7 million years old. Early Pleistocene, Kenya. Kenya National Museum.

168. Homo erectus pekinensis.
Skull (female) of a later Asian erectus individual known as "Beijing Man" from Choukoutien Cave, ca. 500,000 years old, associated with the earliest use o fire. From the Pleistocene of China.

169. Elephas falconeri.
Superb skeleton of the tiny island elephant, direct descendant of the giant early elephants of Europe, dwarfed by insular isolation (gradual favoring of smaller individuals in a limited environment). Pleistocene, Sicily. University of Nebraska State Museum.

170. Archaic Homo sapiens.
Skull (male) of an early sapient individual known as “Rhodesian Man,” ancestral to European and Middle Eastern Neandertals and modern humans. 200,000 years old. Middle Pleistocene, Zimbabwe. British Museum.

172. Ursus spelaeus.
Skull of the ferocious giant cave bear worshiped by Neandertal Man (who inhabited its caves) and ancestral to the modern grizzly. Late Pleistocene, Germany. Private collection.

171. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis.
Skull (female) of a Neandertal individual known as “Mt. Carmel Man,” associated with cave dwelling, the first ritual burials, and improved stone tool technology .Extinct by 30,000 years ago, possibly through interbreeding with early modern humans. 50,000 years old. Middle Pleistocene, Israel. Harvard University.

173. Mammuthus jeffersoni exilis.
Jawbone of the island mammoth dwarfed by insular isolation, from the Pleistocene of Catalina Island, California. Private collection.

197. Eremotherium mirabilis.
Skull of the giant cave-dwelling ground sloth of Pleistocene Florida, related to glyptodonts and armadillos. Royal Ontario Museum.

174. Glyptotherium floridanum.
Exquisite skeleton and carapace of a glyptodont, armored ancestor of the armadillo and distant relative of the tree sloth, from the Pleistocene of Florida. Private collection.

175. Glyptodon.
Carapace fragment from the giant ancestor of the armadillo, from the Pleistocene of Mexico. Private collection.

176. Smilodon fatalis.
Mounted skeleton of the large saber-toothed cat recovered from the La Brea tar pits where it preyed on giant mammoths mired in the asphalt. Extinct by 11,000 years ago, following the arrival of Mankind in North America. Late Pleistocene, California. Page Museum.

177. Coprolite. Carnivore.
Fossilized mammal excrement containing bone shards, from the Pleistocene of Texas. Private collection.

178. Dytiscus.
Predaceous diving water beetles trapped in asphalt, from the Late Pleistocene Rancho La Brea deposits of Los Angeles County, California. Private collection.

179. Teratomis merriami.
Skull of the giant scavenger bird with a wingspan of nearly 14 feet, recovered from the La Brea tar pits. Late Pleistocene, California. Private collection.

180. Paleolithic tools
Oldowan
Acheulian
Mousterian.
The evolving technology of stone tools produced by Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Neandertal Man, from the Late Pliocene of Africa to the Late Pleistocene of Europe. Private collection.

181. Cro-Magnon artifacts
Spear point
Ornamental bear claws
Fish hooks
Engraved reindeer antler
Carved reindeer antler
Mammoth carved in bone
Bulls carved in bone
Wild horse of Vogelherd
Small Venus.
The advanced, expressive artistry of Cro-Magnon Man from the Late Pleistocene of Western Europe. Musee de L'homme.

182. Homo sapiens sapiens.
Skull (male) of an elderly individual known as “Cro- Magnon I,” an early modern human descended from archaic Homo sapiens, associated with sophisticated stone tools, carved fetishes, and cave wall paintings. 30,000 years old. Pleistocene, France. Musee de L'homme.

183. Venus of Willendorf.
Ancient paleolithic fertility fetish from the Danube Valley, dated at 23,000 years. Vienna Natural History Museum.

185. Moon rocks.
Lunar basalt and lunar crust (“The Genesis Rock”). Samples of ancient volcanic lunar rock (black and gray) and the original, 4.6 billion year old pristine lunar crust (white), collected by Apollo astronauts. University of Texas.